Introduction

Substance use in adolescence can have widespread negative effects on adolescent health, including school failure, respiratory disease, high-risk sexual behaviours, injury and even death. Although some view the occasional use of substances such as alcohol or marijuana as part of normal adolescent development, there exists significant potential for injury even with occasional use. In North America, over 30% of deaths from all injuries are directly related to alcohol.

Substance use often begins in early adolescence, with 14-15 years being the average age of first substance use in Canada. Given that many youth in Canada struggle with substance abuse and addiction, pediatricians must commit themselves to the early identification of youth at risk of substance abuse and provide early interventions to prevent negative health outcomes.

This article outlines the presentation and management of adolescent substance use and presents an overview of the intoxication effects of the most commonly used substances (note: Nicotine not included in this article).

Local Statistics

A recent survey of over 29,000 British Columbian youth enrolled in Grades 7-12 provides recent estimates of substance use for school-enrolled youth in B.C., Canada. The following table outlines the percentage of youth surveyed who had ‘ever tried’ each substance.

In this survey, 41% of students who had used any substance reported getting so intoxicated that they didn’t remember what they had done while intoxicated.

General presentation

Adolescents with substance use problems present in a variety of ways:

• Intoxicated in the emergency department
• In your clinic with physical complaints: e.g. persistent abdominal pain, palpitations, chest pain, recurrent sore throat, persistent nasal discharge
• Brought in by parents for behavioural concerns: changes in school performance, sudden mood swings, stealing or lying
• No presenting signs or symptoms; disclosed only on direct questioning by health care professionals

Thus, it is imperative that you consider substance use in the differential diagnosis for all psychosocial, behavioural and medical problems. It is also important to screen for co-morbid conditions such as ADHD or psychiatric illness, since their identification is imperative to successful treatment.

Defining Substance Abuse & Dependence

Currently accepted definitions for substance abuse and dependence were developed for use in adults and can be found in the DSM-IV. These have limitations in adolescents due to different use patterns and developmental considerations, but are nevertheless a useful guide for characterizing adolescent substance use.

Substance abuse is generally defined as a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by one of the following criteria: Failure to fulfill obligations, recurrent use in physically hazardous situations, substance-related legal problems, substance-related interpersonal problems.

In contrast, substance dependence (a.k.a. addiction) is defined by three of the following criteria over a 12-month period: Drug tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, inability to cut down on substance use despite motivation, continued use despite awareness of consequences, reduction of activities (social, occupational, recreational) due to substance use. For full definitions please consult the DSM-IV.

History Taking: Questions to Ask

All adolescents should be screened for substance use as part of a comprehensive HEADSS interview (home, employment, activities, drugs, sex, suicide).  Standardized screening tools such as the CRAFFT test (see table below) have high sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing substance abuse or dependence.

Score 1 point for every “yes” answer. Score of 2 or higher has 80% sensitivity and 86% specificity for a diagnosis of substance abuse or dependence.

If the CRAFFT screening tool is positive or substance use is disclosed, you should take a more detailed history that includes the following:

• Age of first use & types of drugs used
• Current pattern of use: Circumstances/frequency/timing of use
• Impact on health/school/family; other negative consequences
• Family history of substance use/abuse
• Screening for co-morbid psychiatric conditions

Physical Examination

Signs to look for on physical examination will depend on the type of substances used, the chronicity of use and the presence of acute intoxication. To help guide the physical examination, intoxication effects and long-term health consequences of the most commonly used substances are presented below.

**NOTE: insert link to “Commonly Abused Drugs” here

Investigations

• Acute intoxication: basic bloodwork including CBC, electrolytes, BUN, creatinine
• If decreased level of consciousness, other tests may be indicated (e.g. blood glucose, calcium, toxicology screening)
• Drug screening not recommended without informed patient consent, unless the adolescent has altered mental status.
• When ordering drug screening tests, keep in mind that the window of detection for most substances is brief and that false-positive results can occur from other substances.

The following table outlines the screening tests available for drugs of abuse:

Management

The following is a basic approach to managing adolescent substance use based on the stages of change model. Any adolescent with substance abuse or dependence should be referred for appropriate inpatient or outpatient treatment services.

References

• Adolescent Substance Abuse. In: Kliegman et al., eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 18^th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
• Adolescent Substance Abuse. In: Hay et al., eds. CURRENT Diagnosis & Treatment: Pediatrics. 19^th ed. U.S.A; McGraw-Hill Companies Inc; 2009.
• Baydala, L. Inhalant Abuse. Pediatric Child Health 2010;15(7): 443-448.
• Substance Use in Adolescence. In: Parker et al., eds. Developmental and Behavioural Pediatrics: A Handbook for Primary Care. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2005; 329-332.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Chart of Commonly Abused Drugs. National Institute on Drug Abuse website. Available at: http://www.drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html. Accessed Sept 20, 2010.
• Smith, A., Stewart D., Peled, M., Poon, C., Saewyc, E. and the McCreary Centre Society. A Picture of Health: Highlights from the 2008 BC Adolescent Health Survey. Vancouver, BC: McCreary Centre Society: 2009.

Acknowledgments

Written by: Katrina Stockley

Edited by: Elmine Statham